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would be subject to

  • 1 subject

    1 noun ['sʌbdʒɪkt]
    (a) (topic) sujet m;
    ∎ on the subject of au sujet de, à propos de;
    ∎ this will be the subject of my next lecture ma prochaine conférence portera sur ce sujet;
    ∎ to wander from the subject s'écarter du sujet, faire une digression;
    ∎ let's come or get back to the subject revenons à nos moutons;
    ∎ don't try and change the subject n'essaie pas de changer de sujet ou de détourner la conversation;
    ∎ let's drop the subject parlons d'autre chose;
    ∎ while we're on the subject à (ce) propos;
    ∎ while we're on the subject of holidays puisque nous parlons de vacances;
    ∎ that's a touchy subject c'est un sujet délicat
    (b) (of legal case, contract) objet m;
    ∎ (in letters and memos) subject: recruitment of new staff objet: recrutement de personnel
    ∎ the subject of her film/novel le sujet de son film/roman;
    ∎ he always photographs his subjects in natural light il photographie toujours ses sujets en lumière naturelle
    (d) Grammar & Philosophy sujet m
    (e) School & University matière f, discipline f; (field) domaine m;
    ∎ she's taking exams in four subjects elle passe des examens dans quatre matières;
    ∎ I was always better at science subjects j'ai toujours été plus fort en sciences;
    ∎ it's not really my subject ce n'est pas vraiment mon domaine;
    ∎ that would be a good subject for a PhD thesis ce serait un bon sujet pour une thèse de doctorat
    (f) Politics (of monarch) sujet(ette) m,f;
    ∎ she is a British subject c'est une ressortissante britannique;
    ∎ foreign subjects ressortissants mpl étrangers
    ∎ she'd be a good subject for the new treatment elle serait un bon sujet pour le nouveau traitement;
    ∎ subjects were tested for their reactions on a testé la réaction des sujets
    (h) (cause) objet m;
    ∎ he was the subject of much comment il a été l'objet de nombreux commentaires
    2 adjective ['sʌbdʒɪkt]
    (a) (subordinate → people, country) assujetti, soumis;
    ∎ they are subject to my authority ils sont placés sous mon autorité, ils dépendent de moi;
    ∎ we are all subject to the rule of law nous sommes tous soumis à la loi;
    ∎ subject states États mpl dépendants
    (b) (liable, prone)
    ∎ subject to sujet à;
    ∎ he is subject to frequent lung infections il est sujet à de fréquentes infections pulmonaires;
    ∎ subject to attack exposé à l'attaque;
    ∎ to be subject to violent changes of mood/fits of jealousy être sujet à de brusques sautes d'humeur/des crises de jalousie;
    ∎ the terms are subject to alteration without notice les termes peuvent être modifiés sans préavis;
    ∎ subject to tax imposable, assujetti à l'impôt;
    ∎ the price is subject to a handling charge les frais de manutention sont en sus;
    ∎ all trains will be subject to delay des retards sont à prévoir sur toutes les lignes
    3 transitive verb [sʌb'dʒekt]
    (a) (country, people) soumettre, assujettir
    ∎ to subject to soumettre à;
    ∎ to subject sb/sth to an examination faire subir un examen à qn/qch, soumettre qn/qch à un examen;
    ∎ the material was subjected to intense heat le matériau a été soumis ou exposé à une température très élevée;
    ∎ I refuse to subject anyone to such indignities je refuse de faire subir de tels affronts à qui que ce soit;
    ∎ their plans were subjected to much criticism leurs projets ont fait l'objet de nombreuses critiques
    ['sʌbdʒɪkt] (save for) sous réserve de, sauf; (conditional upon) à condition de;
    ∎ these are the rules, subject to revision voici le règlement, sous réserve de modification;
    ∎ subject to your passing the exam à condition de réussir ou à condition que vous réussissiez l'examen;
    ∎ it's all subject to her approval tout est subordonné à son approbation
    ►► subject catalogue fichier m par matières;
    subject index index m des matières;
    subject matter (topic) sujet m, thème m; (substance) substance f, contenu m

    Un panorama unique de l'anglais et du français > subject

  • 2 subject

    1. ['sʌbʤekt] сущ.
    1) тема, предмет разговора

    to address / deal with / discuss / take up / treat a subject — затрагивать какую-л. тему

    to bring up / broach a subject — начать обсуждение темы

    to tackle a subject — энергично, оживлённо обсуждать какую-л. тему

    on the subject of smth. — касаясь чего-л.

    While we are on the subject of money may I ask you... — Раз уж мы заговорили о деньгах, могу я узнать…

    - dwell on a sore subject
    - traverse a subject
    - exhaust a subject
    - delicate subject
    - ticklish subject
    - favourite subject
    - thorny subject
    Syn:
    2)
    а) объект, предмет
    б) дисциплина, предмет
    3) ( subject for) повод, причина (для чего-л.)
    Syn:
    ground I 1., motive 1., cause 1.
    4)
    а) субъект, человек
    б) подданный, гражданин

    subject of the crown — подданный какого-л. королевства

    в) филос. субъект
    г) ист. вассал
    д) подчинённый, находящийся в подчинении
    5) лингв. подлежащее
    - compound subject
    - grammatical subject
    Gram:
    [ref dict="LingvoGrammar (En-Ru)"]Complex subject[/ref]
    [ref dict="LingvoGrammar (En-Ru)"]Empty subject: "it" and "there"[/ref]
    6) театр. сцена, сюжет ( которые разыгрываются)
    7) юр. предмет собственности
    8) дело, занятие, сфера профессиональных интересов
    Syn:
    business I 1.
    9) муз. главная тема, лейтмотив
    10) мед. труп, подлежащий вскрытию (в частности, для анатомического театра)
    2. ['sʌbʤekt] прил.
    1) зависимый, подвластный, подневольный, подчинённый

    He would no longer be subject to the caprice of any woman. (Black) — Он больше никогда не будет зависеть от женских капризов.

    Syn:
    2)
    а) подверженный (чему-л.)

    the sands which are subject to violent agitation from the action of the wind — пески, движущиеся под действием ветра (буквально "пески, подверженные сильным передвижениям из-за воздействия ветра")

    б) склонный, предрасположенный (к чему-л.)
    3) подлежащий (какой-л. обработке)
    3. [səb'ʤekt] гл.
    1) подчинять, покорять

    The people were subjected to the conqueror's rule. — Люди были подчинены власти завоевателя.

    Syn:
    2)
    а) подвергать (воздействию, влиянию и т. п.)

    This metal should not be subjected to too high temperatures. — Этот металл не следует подвергать воздействию слишком высоких температур.

    Syn:
    б) предрасполагать, склонять (к чему-л.)
    Syn:
    3) представлять, вносить (документ и т. п.)

    He subjected his ideas to the scientific society. — Он вынес свои идеи на обсуждение научного общества.

    Англо-русский современный словарь > subject

  • 3 US children's TV show that was especially popular in the 70s. (It took place in a kindergarten classroom and featured an uptight teacher named Ms . Suzy or something who would always make the kids say grace befor

    General subject: romper room

    Универсальный русско-английский словарь > US children's TV show that was especially popular in the 70s. (It took place in a kindergarten classroom and featured an uptight teacher named Ms . Suzy or something who would always make the kids say grace befor

  • 4 от What Would Jesus Do - Что бы сдел

    General subject: WWJD (Распространенное выражение, используемое христианами. Прежде, чем что то сделать, следует задать себе этот вопрос. Часто наносится на браслет, который носится на руке в напоминание.)

    Универсальный русско-английский словарь > от What Would Jesus Do - Что бы сдел

  • 5 переоцененные активы (с повышенной стоимостью ; Assets that have a higher market value than their basis or tax purpose value. Such assets would, if sold by an in

    Универсальный русско-английский словарь > переоцененные активы (с повышенной стоимостью ; Assets that have a higher market value than their basis or tax purpose value. Such assets would, if sold by an in

  • 6 спасибо, нет (Would you like some coffee ? - I am good (meaning no thanks)

    General subject: I am good

    Универсальный русско-английский словарь > спасибо, нет (Would you like some coffee ? - I am good (meaning no thanks)

  • 7 ἰός

    ἰός, οῦ, ὁ (Pind. et al.; pap, LXX; TestJob 43:8; TestReub 5:6; ApcMos 19)
    ① poison, venom
    ⓐ lit. ἰὸν ἐχίδνης Papias (11:2) and ἰὸς ἀσπίδων (TestJob 43:12; cp. Appian, Mithr. 88 §490 ἰὸς ὄφεων; Philo, Leg. ad Gai. 166; Jos., Bell. 1, 601; Constant. Manasses 4, 39 H.) Ro 3:13 (Ps 13:3; 139:4). Of animal (i.e. snake; s. θηρίον 1aβד) poison also Hs 9, 26, 7. These passages, as well as Hv 3, 9, 7 and ITr 6:2 v.l., show that the transition to the fig. use was easy.
    ⓑ fig. (Aeschyl., Eum. 730 al.; Herm. Wr. p. 480, 15 Sc.; Test Reub 5:6) Js 3:8.
    ② corrosion, rust (Theognis 451; Pla., Tim. 59c, Rep. 10, 609a; Theocr. 16, 17 et al.; SIG2 587, 310 [329 B.C.] σίδηρος καταβεβρωμένος ὑπὸ τοῦ ἰοῦ; SIG 284, 15; Herm. Wr. 14, 7; Ezk 24:6, 11f; EpJer 10 and 23; Philo, Div. Rer. Her. 217 [χρυσὸς] ἰὸν οὐ παραδέχεται, gold is praised for being rust-proof; sim. Theognis 449–52; but if not adequately refined or subject to chemical pollution some metals in a gold object would be subject to oxidation) Js 5:3; Dg 2:2.—DELG ἰός (3). M-M. TW.

    Ελληνικά-Αγγλικά παλαιοχριστιανική Λογοτεχνία > ἰός

  • 8 подвержен

    •

    Hard faces are prone to thermal shock if they...

    •

    The product is liable to distort or warp when...

    •

    The adrenals are susceptible to certain infections.

    •

    The external-combustion engine is not susceptible to contamination or damage from dust or salt in the environment.

    Русско-английский научно-технический словарь переводчика > подвержен

  • 9 Bakewell, Robert

    [br]
    b. 23 May 1725 Loughborough, England
    d. 1 October 1795 Loughborough, England
    [br]
    English livestock breeder who pioneered the practice of progeny testing for selecting breeding stock; he is particularly associated with the development of the Improved Leicester breed of sheep.
    [br]
    Robert Bakewell was the son of the tenant farming the 500-acre (200 hectare) Dishley Grange Farm, near Loughborough, where he was born. The family was sufficiently wealthy to allow Robert to travel, which he began to do at an early age, exploring the farming methods of the West Country, Norfolk, Ireland and Holland. On taking over the farm he continued the development of the irrigation scheme begun by his father. Arthur Young visited the farm during his tour of east England in 1771. At that time it consisted of 440 acres (178 hectares), 110 acres (45 hectares) of which were arable, and carried a stock of 60 horses, 400 sheep and 150 other assorted beasts. Of the arable land, 30 acres (12 hectares) were under root crops, mainly turnips.
    Bakewell was not the first to pioneer selective breeding, but he was the first successfully to apply selection to both the efficiency with which an animal utilized its food, and its physical appearance. He always had a clear idea of the animal he wanted, travelled extensively to collect a range of animals possessing the characteristics he sought, and then bred from these towards his goal. He was aware of the dangers of inbreeding, but would often use it to gain the qualities he wanted. His early experiments were with Longhorn cattle, which he developed as a meat rather than a draught animal, but his most famous achievement was the development of the Improved Leicester breed of sheep. He set out to produce an animal that would put on the most meat in the least time and with the least feeding. As his base he chose the Old Leicester, but there is still doubt as to which other breeds he may have introduced to produce the desired results. The Improved Leicester was smaller than its ancestor, with poorer wool quality but with greatly improved meat-production capacity.
    Bakewell let out his sires to other farms and was therefore able to study their development under differing conditions. However, he made stringent rules for those who hired these animals, requiring the exclusive use of his rams on the farms concerned and requiring particular dietary conditions to be met. To achieve this control he established the Dishley Society in 1783. Although his policies led to accusations of closed access to his stock, they enabled him to keep a close control of all offspring. He thereby pioneered the process now recognized as "progeny testing".
    Bakewell's fame and that of his farm spread throughout the country and overseas. He engaged in an extensive correspondence and acted as host to all of influence in British and overseas agriculture, but it would appear that he was an over-generous host, since he is known to have been in financial difficulties in about 1789. He was saved from bankruptcy by a public subscription raised to allow him to continue with his breeding experiments; this experience may well have been the reason why he was such a staunch advocate of State funding of agricultural research.
    [br]
    Further Reading
    William Houseman, 1894, biography, Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society. 1–31. H.C.Parsons, 1957, Robert Bakewell (contains a more detailed account).
    R.Trow Smith, 1957, A History of British Livestock Husbandry to 1700, London: Routledge \& Kegan Paul.
    —A History of British Livestock Husbandry 1700 to 1900 (places Bakewell within the context of overall developments).
    M.L.Ryder, 1983, Sheep and Man, Duckworth (a scientifically detailed account which deals with Bakewell within the context of its particular subject).
    AP

    Biographical history of technology > Bakewell, Robert

  • 10 Sutton, Thomas

    [br]
    b. 1819 England
    d. 1875 Jersey, Channel Islands
    [br]
    English photographer and writer on photography.
    [br]
    In 1841, while studying at Cambridge, Sutton became interested in photography and tried out the current processes, daguerreotype, calotype and cyanotype among them. He subsequently settled in Jersey, where he continued his photographic studies. In 1855 he opened a photographic printing works in Jersey, in partnership with L.-D. Blanquart- Evrard, exploiting the latter's process for producing developed positive prints. He started and edited one of the first photographic periodicals, Photographic Notes, in 1856; until its cessation in 1867, his journal presented a fresher view of the world of photography than that given by its London-based rivals. He also drew up the first dictionary of photography in 1858.
    In 1859 Sutton designed and patented a wideangle lens in which the space between two meniscus lenses, forming parts of a sphere and sealed in a metal rim, was filled with water; the lens so formed could cover an angle of up to 120 degrees at an aperture of f12. Sutton's design was inspired by observing the images produced by the water-filled sphere of a "snowstorm" souvenir brought home from Paris! Sutton commissioned the London camera-maker Frederick Cox to make the Panoramic camera, demonstrating the first model in January 1860; it took panoramic pictures on curved glass plates 152×381 mm in size. Cox later advertised other models in a total of four sizes. In January 1861 Sutton handed over manufacture to Andrew Ross's son Thomas Ross, who produced much-improved lenses and also cameras in three sizes. Sutton then developed the first single-lens reflex camera design, patenting it on 20 August 1961: a pivoted mirror, placed at 45 degrees inside the camera, reflected the image from the lens onto a ground glass-screen set in the top of the camera for framing and focusing. When ready, the mirror was swung up out of the way to allow light to reach the plate at the back of the camera. The design was manufactured for a few years by Thomas Ross and J.H. Dallmeyer.
    In 1861 James Clerk Maxwell asked Sutton to prepare a series of photographs for use in his lecture "On the theory of three primary colours", to be presented at the Royal Institution in London on 17 May 1861. Maxwell required three photographs to be taken through red, green and blue filters, which were to be printed as lantern slides and projected in superimposition through three projectors. If his theory was correct, a colour reproduction of the original subject would be produced. Sutton used liquid filters: ammoniacal copper sulphate for blue, copper chloride for the green and iron sulphocyanide for the red. A fourth exposure was made through lemon-yellow glass, but was not used in the final demonstration. A tartan ribbon in a bow was used as the subject; the wet-collodion process in current use required six seconds for the blue exposure, about twice what would have been needed without the filter. After twelve minutes no trace of image was produced through the green filter, which had to be diluted to a pale green: a twelve-minute exposure then produced a serviceable negative. Eight minutes was enough to record an image through the red filter, although since the process was sensitive only to blue light, nothing at all should have been recorded. In 1961, R.M.Evans of the Kodak Research Laboratory showed that the red liquid transmitted ultraviolet radiation, and by an extraordinary coincidence many natural red dye-stuffs reflect ultraviolet. Thus the red separation was made on the basis of non-visible radiation rather than red, but the net result was correct and the projected images did give an identifiable reproduction of the original. Sutton's photographs enabled Maxwell to establish the validity of his theory and to provide the basis upon which all subsequent methods of colour photography have been founded.
    JW / BC

    Biographical history of technology > Sutton, Thomas

  • 11 предмет

    subject, matter, object, unit, topic, article, item
    • Более подробное обсуждение предмета дано Смитом [1]. - A more detailed discussion of the subject is given by Smith [1].
    • Другой предмет, напрашивающийся на рассмотрение, состоит в том, что... - Another subject that calls for consideration is that of...
    • Нашей целью является не систематическое развитие предмета, а, скорее,... - Our interest is not to develop the subject systematically, but to...
    • Относительно более полного описания предмета см. Найквист [1]. - For a fuller treatment of this subject, see Nyquist [1].
    • Предварительный обзор данного предмета был бы неполным без... - A preview of this subject would be incomplete without...
    • Предметом нашего изобретения является... - What we claim is:...; We claim as our recent invention:...
    • Это составляет предмет физики. - This constitutes the subject matter of physics.

    Русско-английский словарь научного общения > предмет

  • 12 Thomas, Sidney Gilchrist

    SUBJECT AREA: Metallurgy
    [br]
    b. 16 April 1850 London, England
    d. 1 February 1885 Paris, France
    [br]
    English inventor of basic steelmaking.
    [br]
    Thomas was educated at Dulwich College and from the age of 17, for the next twelve years, he made his living as a police-court clerk, although he studied chemistry in his spare time as an evening student at Birkbeck College, London. While there, he heard of the difficulties encountered by the Bessemer steelmaking process, which at that time was limited to using phosphorus-free iron. Any of this element present in the iron was oxidized to phosphoric acid, which would not react with the acidic lining in the converter, with the result that it would remain in the iron and render it too brittle to use. Unfortunately, phosphoric iron ores are more common than those free of this harmful element. Thomas was attracted by the view that a fortune awaited anyone who could solve this problem, and was not discouraged by the failure of several august figures in the industry, including Siemens and Lowthian Bell.
    Thomas's knowledge of chemistry taught him that whereas an acidic lining allowed the phosphorus to remain in the iron, a basic lining would react with it to form part of the slag, which could then be tapped off. His experiments to find a suitable material were conducted in difficult conditions, in his spare time with meagre apparatus. Finally he found that a converter lined with dolomite, a form of limestone, would succeed, and he appealed to his cousin Percy Carlyle Gilchrist, Chemist at the Blaenavon Ironworks in Monmouthshire, for help in carrying out pilot-scale trials. In 1879 he gave up his police-court job to devote himself to the work, and in the same year they patented the Thomas- Gilchrist process. The first licence to use it was granted to Bolckow, Vaughan \& Co. of Middlesborough, and there the first steel was made in a basic Bessemer converter on 4 April 1879. The process was rapidly taken up and spread widely in Europe and beyond and was applied to other furnaces. Thomas made a fortune, but his health did not long allow him to enjoy it, for he died at the early age of 34.
    [br]
    Bibliography
    L.G.Thompson, 1940, Sidney Gilchrist Thomas, an Invention and Its Consequences, London: Faber.
    T.G.Davies, 1978, Blaenavon and Sidney Gilchrist Thomas, Sheffield: Historical Metallurgy Society.
    LRD

    Biographical history of technology > Thomas, Sidney Gilchrist

  • 13 Agricola, Georgius (Georg Bauer)

    SUBJECT AREA: Metallurgy
    [br]
    b. 24 March 1494 Glauchau, Saxony
    d. 21 November 1555 Chemnitz, Germany
    [br]
    German metallurgist, who wrote the book De Re Metallica under the latinized version of his name.
    [br]
    Agricola was a physician, scientist and metallurgist of note and it was this which led to the publication of De Re Metallica. He studied at Leipzig University and between 1518 and 1522 he was a school teacher in Zwickau. Eventually he settled as a physician in Chemnitz. Later he continued his medical practice at Joachimstal in the Erzgebirge. This town was newly built to serve the mining community in what was at the time the most important ore-mining field in both Germany and Europe.
    As a physician in the sixteenth century he would naturally have been concerned with the development of medicines, which would have led him to research the medical properties of ores and base metals. He studied the mineralogy of his area, and the mines, and the miners who were working there. He wrote several books in Latin on geology and mineralogy. His important work during that period was a glossary of mineralogical and mining terms in both Latin and German. It is, however, De Re Metallica for which he is best known. This large volume contains twelve books which deal with mining and metallurgy, including an account of glassmaking. Whilst one can understand the text of this book very easily, the quality of the illustrative woodcuts should not be neglected. These illustrations detail the mines, furnaces, forges and the plant associated with them, unfortunately the name of the artist is unknown. The importance of the work lies in the fact that it is an assemblage of information on all the methods and practices current at that time. The book was clearly intended as a textbook of mining and mineralogy and as such it would have been brought to England by German engineers when they were employed by the Mines Royal in the Keswick area in the late sixteenth century. In addition to his studies in preparation for De Re Metallica, Agricola was an "adventurer" holding shares in the Gottesgab mine in the Erzegebirge.
    [br]
    Principal Honours and Distinctions Bibliography
    1556, De Re Metallica, Basel; 1912, trans. H. Hoover and L.H.Hoover, London.
    KM

    Biographical history of technology > Agricola, Georgius (Georg Bauer)

  • 14 Behr, Fritz Bernhard

    [br]
    b. 9 October 1842 Berlin, Germany
    d. 25 February 1927
    [br]
    German (naturalized British in 1876) engineer, promoter of the Lartigue monorail system.
    [br]
    Behr trained as an engineer in Britain and had several railway engineering appointments before becoming associated with C.F.M.-T. Lartigue in promoting the Lartigue monorail system in the British Isles. In Lartigue's system, a single rail was supported on trestles; vehicles ran on the rail, their bodies suspended pannier-fashion, stabilized by horizontal rollers running against light guide rails fixed to the sides of the trestles. Behr became Managing Director of the Listowel \& Ballybunion Railway Company, which in 1888 opened its Lartigue system line between those two places in the south-west of Ireland. Three locomotives designed by J.T.A. Mallet were built for the line by Hunslet Engine Company, each with two horizontal boilers, one either side of the track. Coaches and wagons likewise were in two parts. Technically the railway was successful, but lack of traffic caused the company to go bankrupt in 1897: the railway continued to operate until 1924.
    Meanwhile Behr had been thinking in terms far more ambitious than a country branch line. Railway speeds of 150mph (240km/h) or more then lay far in the future: engineers were uncertain whether normal railway vehicles would even be stable at such speeds. Behr was convinced that a high-speed electric vehicle on a substantial Lartigue monorail track would be stable. In 1897 he demonstrated such a vehicle on a 3mile (4.8km) test track at the Brussels International Exhibition. By keeping the weight of the motors low, he was able to place the seats above rail level. Although the generating station provided by the Exhibition authorities never operated at full power, speeds over 75mph (120 km/h) were achieved.
    Behr then promoted the Manchester-Liverpool Express Railway, on which monorail trains of this type running at speeds up to 110mph (177km/h) were to link the two cities in twenty minutes. Despite strong opposition from established railway companies, an Act of Parliament authorizing it was made in 1901. The Act also contained provision for the Board of Trade to require experiments to prove the system's safety. In practice this meant that seven miles of line, and a complete generating station to enable trains to travel at full speed, must be built before it was known whether the Board would give its approval for the railway or not. Such a condition was too severe for the scheme to attract investors and it remained stillborn.
    [br]
    Further Reading
    H.Fayle, 1946, The Narrow Gauge Railways of Ireland, Greenlake Publications, Part 2, ch. 2 (describes the Listowel \& Ballybunion Railway and Behr's work there).
    D.G.Tucker, 1984, "F.B.Behr's development of the Lartigue monorail", Transactions of
    the Newcomen Society 55 (covers mainly the high speed lines).
    See also: Brennan, Louis
    PJGR

    Biographical history of technology > Behr, Fritz Bernhard

  • 15 Benz, Karl

    [br]
    b. 25 November 1844 Pfaffenrot, Black Forest, Germany
    d. 4 April 1929 Ladenburg, near Mannheim, Germany
    [br]
    German inventor of one of the first motor cars.
    [br]
    The son of a railway mechanic, it is said that as a child one of his hobbies was the repair of Black Forest clocks. He trained as a mechanical engineer at the Karlsruhe Lyzeum and Polytechnikum under Ferdinand Redtenbacher (d. 1863), who pointed out to him the need for a more portable power source than the steam engine. He went to Maschinenbau Gesellschaft Karlsruhe for workshop experience and then joined Schweizer \& Cie, Mannheim, for two years. In 1868 he went to the Benkiser Brothers at Pforzheim. In 1871 he set up a small machine-tool works at Mannheim, but in 1877, in financial difficulties, he turned to the idea of an entirely new product based on the internal-combustion engine. At this time, N.A. Otto held the patent for the four-stroke internal-combustion engine, so Benz had to put his hopes on a two-stroke design. He avoided the trouble with Dugald Clerk's engine and designed one in which the fuel would not ignite in the pump and in which the cylinder was swept with fresh air between each two firing strokes. His first car had a sparking plug and coil ignition. By 1879 he had developed the engine to a stage where it would run satisfactorily with little attention. On 31 December 1879, with his wife Bertha working the treadle of her sewing machine to charge the batteries, he demonstrated his engine in street trials in Mannheim. In the summer of 1888, unknown to her husband, Bertha drove one of his cars the 80 km (50 miles) to Pforzheim and back with her two sons, aged 13 and 15. She and the elder boy pushed the car up hills while the younger one steered. They bought petrol from an apothecary in Wiesloch and had a brake block repaired in Bauschlott by the village cobbler. Karl Benz's comments on her return from this venture are not recorded! Financial problems prevented immediate commercial production of the automobile, but in 1882 Benz set up the Gasmotorenfabrik Mannheim. After trouble with some of his partners, he left in 1883 and formed a new company, Benz \& Cie, Rheinische Gasmotorenfabrik. Otto's patent was revoked in 1886 and in that year Benz patented a motor car with a gas engine drive. He manufactured a 0.8hp car, the engine running at 250 rpm with a horizontal flywheel, exhibited at the Paris Fair in 1889. He was not successful in finding anyone in France who would undertake manufacture. This first car was a three-wheeler, and soon after he produced a four-wheeled car, but he quarrelled with his co-directors, and although he left the board in 1902 he rejoined it soon after.
    [br]
    Further Reading
    St J.Nixon, 1936, The Invention of the Automobile. E.Diesel et al., 1960, From Engines to Autos. E.Johnson, 1986, The Dawn of Motoring.
    IMcN

    Biographical history of technology > Benz, Karl

  • 16 Brunelleschi, Filippo

    [br]
    b. 1377 Florence, Italy
    d. 15 April 1446 Florence, Italy
    [br]
    Italian artist, craftsman and architect who introduced the Italian Renaissance style of classical architecture in the fifteenth century.
    [br]
    Brunelleschi was a true "Renaissance Man" in that he excelled in several disciplines, as did most artists of the Italian Renaissance of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. He was a goldsmith and sculptor; fifteenth-century writers acknowledge him as the first to study and demonstrate the principles of perspective, and he clearly possessed a deep mathematical understanding of the principles of architectural structure.
    Brunelleschi's Foundling Hospital in Florence, begun in 1419, is accepted as the first Renaissance building, one whose architectural style is based upon a blend of the classical principles and decoration of Ancient Rome and those of the Tuscan Romanesque. Brunelleschi went on to design a number of important Renaissance structures in Florence, such as the basilicas of San Lorenzo and Santo Spirito, the Pazzi Chapel at Santa Croce, and the unfinished church of Santa Maria degli Angeli.
    However, the artistic and technical feat for which Brunelleschi is most famed is the completion of Florence Cathedral by constructing a dome above the octagonal drum which had been completed in 1412. The building of this dome presented what appeared to be at the time insuperable problems, which had caused previous cathedral architects to shy away from tackling it. The drum was nearly 140 ft (43 m) in diameter and its base was 180 ft (55 m) above floor level: no wooden centering was possible because no trees long enough to span the gap could be found, and even if they had been available, the weight of such a massive framework would have broken centering beneath. In addition, the drum had no external abutment, so the weight of the dome must exert excessive lateral thrust. Aesthetically, the ideal Renaissance dome, like the Roman dome before it (for example, the Pantheon) was a hemisphere, but in the case of the Florence Cathedral such a structure would have been unsafe, so Brunelleschi created a pointed dome that would create less thrust laterally. He constructed eight major ribs of stone and, between them, sixteen minor ones, using a light infilling. He constructed a double-shell dome, which was the first of this type but is a design that has been followed by nearly all major architects since this date (for example Michelangelo's Saint Peter's in Rome, and Wren's Saint Paul's in London). Further strength is given by a herringbone pattern of masonry and brick infilling, and by tension chains of massive blocks, fastened with iron and with iron chains above, girding the dome at three levels. A large lantern finally stops the 50 ft (15.25 m) diameter eye at the point of the dome. Construction of the Florence Cathedral dome was begun on 7 August 1420 and was completed to the base of the lantern sixteen years later. It survives as the peak of Brunelleschi's Renaissance achievement.
    [br]
    Further Reading
    Peter Murray, 1963, The Architecture of the Italian Renaissance, Batsford, Ch. 2. Howard Saalman, 1980, Filippo Brunelleschi: The Cupola of Santa Maria del Fiore, Zwemmer.
    Piero Sanpaolesi, 1977, La Cupola di Santa Maria del Fiore: Il Progetto: La Costruzione, Florence: Edam.
    Eugenio Battisti, 1981, Brunelleschi: The Complete Work, Thames and Hudson.
    DY

    Biographical history of technology > Brunelleschi, Filippo

  • 17 Budding, Edwin Beard

    [br]
    b. c.1796 Bisley (?), Gloucestershire, England
    d. 1846 Dursley, Gloucestershire, England
    [br]
    English inventor of the lawn mower.
    [br]
    Budding was an engineer who described himself as a mechanic on his first patent papers and as a manager in later applications.
    A rotary machine had been developed at Brimscombe Mill in Stroud for cutting the pile on certain clothes and Budding saw the potential of this principle for a machine for cutting grass on lawns. It is not clear whether Budding worked for the Lewis family, who owned the mill, or whether he saw the machines during their manufacture at the Phoenix Foundry. At the age of 35 Budding entered into partnership with John Ferrabee, who had taken out a lease on Thrupp Mill. They reached an agreement in which Ferrabee would pay to obtain letter patent on the mower and would cover all the development costs, after which they would have an equal share in the profits. The agreement also allowed Ferrabee to license the manufacture of the machine and in 1832 he negotiated with the agricultural manufacturer Ransomes, allowing them to manufacture the mower.
    Budding invented a screw-shifting spanner at a time when he might have been working as a mechanic at Thrupp Mill. He later rented a workshop in which he produced Pepperbox pistols. In the late 1830s he moved to Dursley, where he became Manager for Mr G.Lister, who made clothing machinery. Together they patented an improved method of making cylinders for carding engines, but Budding required police protection from those who saw their jobs threatened by the device. He made no fortune from his inventions and died at the age of 50.
    [br]
    Further Reading
    H.A.Randall, 1965–6 "Some mid-Gloucestershire engineers and inventors", Transactions of the Newcomen Society 38:89–96 (looks at the careers of both Budding and Ferrabee).
    AP

    Biographical history of technology > Budding, Edwin Beard

  • 18 Fairlie, Robert Francis

    [br]
    b. March 1831 Scotland
    d. 31 July 1885 Clapham, London, England
    [br]
    British engineer, designer of the double-bogie locomotive, advocate of narrow-gauge railways.
    [br]
    Fairlie worked on railways in Ireland and India, and established himself as a consulting engineer in London by the early 1860s. In 1864 he patented his design of locomotive: it was to be carried on two bogies and had a double boiler, the barrels extending in each direction from a central firebox. From smokeboxes at the outer ends, return tubes led to a single central chimney. At that time in British practice, locomotives of ever-increasing size were being carried on longer and longer rigid wheelbases, but often only one or two of their three or four pairs of wheels were powered. Bogies were little used and then only for carrying-wheels rather than driving-wheels: since their pivots were given no sideplay, they were of little value. Fairlie's design offered a powerful locomotive with a wheelbase which though long would be flexible; it would ride well and have all wheels driven and available for adhesion.
    The first five double Fairlie locomotives were built by James Cross \& Co. of St Helens during 1865–7. None was particularly successful: the single central chimney of the original design had been replaced by two chimneys, one at each end of the locomotive, but the single central firebox was retained, so that exhaust up one chimney tended to draw cold air down the other. In 1870 the next double Fairlie, Little Wonder, was built for the Festiniog Railway, on which C.E. Spooner was pioneering steam trains of very narrow gauge. The order had gone to George England, but the locomotive was completed by his successor in business, the Fairlie Engine \& Steam Carriage Company, in which Fairlie and George England's son were the principal partners. Little Wonder was given two inner fireboxes separated by a water space and proved outstandingly successful. The spectacle of this locomotive hauling immensely long trains up grade, through the Festiniog Railway's sinuous curves, was demonstrated before engineers from many parts of the world and had lasting effect. Fairlie himself became a great protagonist of narrow-gauge railways and influenced their construction in many countries.
    Towards the end of the 1860s, Fairlie was designing steam carriages or, as they would now be called, railcars, but only one was built before the death of George England Jr precipitated closure of the works in 1870. Fairlie's business became a design agency and his patent locomotives were built in large numbers under licence by many noted locomotive builders, for narrow, standard and broad gauges. Few operated in Britain, but many did in other lands; they were particularly successful in Mexico and Russia.
    Many Fairlie locomotives were fitted with the radial valve gear invented by Egide Walschaert; Fairlie's role in the universal adoption of this valve gear was instrumental, for he introduced it to Britain in 1877 and fitted it to locomotives for New Zealand, whence it eventually spread worldwide. Earlier, in 1869, the Great Southern \& Western Railway of Ireland had built in its works the first "single Fairlie", a 0–4–4 tank engine carried on two bogies but with only one of them powered. This type, too, became popular during the last part of the nineteenth century. In the USA it was built in quantity by William Mason of Mason Machine Works, Taunton, Massachusetts, in preference to the double-ended type.
    Double Fairlies may still be seen in operation on the Festiniog Railway; some of Fairlie's ideas were far ahead of their time, and modern diesel and electric locomotives are of the powered-bogie, double-ended type.
    [br]
    Bibliography
    1864, British patent no. 1,210 (Fairlie's master patent).
    1864, Locomotive Engines, What They Are and What They Ought to Be, London; reprinted 1969, Portmadoc: Festiniog Railway Co. (promoting his ideas for locomotives).
    1865, British patent no. 3,185 (single Fairlie).
    1867. British patent no. 3,221 (combined locomotive/carriage).
    1868. "Railways and their Management", Journal of the Society of Arts: 328. 1871. "On the Gauge for Railways of the Future", abstract in Report of the Fortieth
    Meeting of the British Association in 1870: 215. 1872. British patent no. 2,387 (taper boiler).
    1872, Railways or No Railways. "Narrow Gauge, Economy with Efficiency; or Broad Gauge, Costliness with Extravagance", London: Effingham Wilson; repr. 1990s Canton, Ohio: Railhead Publications (promoting the cause for narrow-gauge railways).
    Further Reading
    Fairlie and his patent locomotives are well described in: P.C.Dewhurst, 1962, "The Fairlie locomotive", Part 1, Transactions of the Newcomen Society 34; 1966, Part 2, Transactions 39.
    R.A.S.Abbott, 1970, The Fairlie Locomotive, Newton Abbot: David \& Charles.
    PJGR

    Biographical history of technology > Fairlie, Robert Francis

  • 19 Szilard, Leo

    SUBJECT AREA: Weapons and armour
    [br]
    b. 11 February 1898 Budapest, Hungary
    d. 30 May 1964 La Jolla, California, USA
    [br]
    Hungarian (naturalized American in 1943) nuclear-and biophysicist.
    [br]
    The son of an engineer, Szilard, after service in the Austro-Hungarian army during the First World War, studied electrical engineering at the University of Berlin. Obtaining his doctorate there in 1922, he joined the faculty and concentrated his studies on thermodynamics. He later began to develop an interest in nuclear physics, and in 1933, shortly after Hitler came to power, Szilard emigrated to Britain because of his Jewish heritage.
    In 1934 he conceived the idea of a nuclear chain reaction through the breakdown of beryllium into helium and took out a British patent on it, but later realized that this process would not work. In 1937 he moved to the USA and continued his research at the University of Columbia, and the following year Hahn and Meitner discovered nuclear fission with uranium; this gave Szilard the breakthrough he needed. In 1939 he realized that a nuclear chain reaction could be produced through nuclear fission and that a weapon with many times the destructive power of the conventional high-explosive bomb could be produced. Only too aware of the progress being made by German nuclear scientists, he believed that it was essential that the USA should create an atomic bomb before Hitler. Consequently he drafted a letter to President Roosevelt that summer and, with two fellow Hungarian émigrés, persuaded Albert Einstein to sign it. The result was the setting up of the Uranium Committee.
    It was not, however, until December 1941 that active steps began to be taken to produce such a weapon and it was a further nine months before the project was properly co-ordinated under the umbrella of the Manhattan Project. In the meantime, Szilard moved to join Enrico Fermi at the University of Chicago and it was here, at the end of 1942, in a squash court under the football stadium, that they successfully developed the world's first self-sustaining nuclear reactor. Szilard, who became an American citizen in 1943, continued to work on the Manhattan Project. In 1945, however, when the Western Allies began to believe that only the atomic bomb could bring the war against Japan to an end, Szilard and a number of other Manhattan Project scientists objected that it would be immoral to use it against populated targets.
    Although he would continue to campaign against nuclear warfare for the rest of his life, Szilard now abandoned nuclear research. In 1946 he became Professor of Biophysics at the University of Chicago and devoted himself to experimental work on bacterial mutations and biochemical mechanisms, as well as theoretical research on ageing and memory.
    [br]
    Principal Honours and Distinctions
    Atoms for Peace award 1959.
    Further Reading
    Kosta Tsipis, 1985, Understanding Nuclear Weapons, London: Wildwood House, pp. 16–19, 26, 28, 32 (a brief account of his work on the atomic bomb).
    A collection of his correspondence and memories was brought out by Spencer Weart and Gertrud W.Szilard in 1978.
    CM

    Biographical history of technology > Szilard, Leo

  • 20 Wolf, Carl

    [br]
    b. 23 December 1838 Zwickau, Saxony, Germany
    d. 30 January 1915 Zwickau, Saxony, Germany
    [br]
    German inventor of the most popular petroleum spirit safety lamp for use in mines.
    [br]
    From an old mining family in the Saxon coalfields, Wolf was aware from his youth of the urgent demand for a miner's lamp which would provide adequate light but not provoke firedamp explosions. While working as an engineer in Zwickau, Wolf spent his spare time conducting experiments for such a lamp. The basic concept of his invention was the principle that dangerous concentrations of methane and air would not explode within a small pipe; this had been established almost seventy years earlier by the English chemist Humphrey Davy. By combining and developing certain devices designed by earlier inventors, in 1883 Wolf produced a prototype with a glass cylinder, a primer fixed inside the lamp and a magnetic lock. Until the successful application of electric light, Wolfs invention was the safest and most popular mining safety lamp. Many earlier inventions had failed to address all the problems of lighting for mines; Davy's lamp, for example, would too quickly become sooty and hot. As Wolfs lamp burned petroleum spirit, at first it was mistrusted outside Saxony, but it successfully passed the safety tests in all the leading coal-producing countries at that time. As well as casting a safe, constant light, the appearance of the cap flame could indicate the concentration of fire-damp in the air, thus providing an additional safety measure. Wolfs first patent was soon followed by many others in several countries, and underwent many developments. In 1884 Heinrich Friemann, a merchant from Eisleben, invested capital in the new company of Friemann and Wolf, which became the leading producer of miners' safety lamps. By 1914 they had manufactured over one million lamps, and the company had branches in major mining districts worldwide.
    [br]
    Further Reading
    F.Schwarz, 1914, Entwickelung und gegenwär-tiger Stand der Grubenbeleuchtung beim Steinkohlen-Bergbau, Gelsenkirchen (a systematic historical outline of safety lamp designs).
    WK

    Biographical history of technology > Wolf, Carl

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